Demographic Variations in Empathy: A Comprehensive Research Report
I. Introduction: Defining Empathy and its Significance
Empathy, a cornerstone of social interaction, refers to the capacity to understand and share the feelings of another. This multifaceted construct is often delineated into distinct yet interconnected dimensions. Cognitive empathy encompasses the ability to recognize and comprehend another individual's thoughts, emotions, and perspectives.1 It involves a more intellectual understanding of someone else's mental state. In contrast, emotional empathy refers to the capacity to vicariously experience feelings similar to those of another person or to feel compassion for their emotional state.1 It is the affective resonance with another's emotions. It is important to note that research in this field often focuses on one or both of these dimensions, leading to findings that can appear nuanced or even contradictory depending on the specific aspect of empathy under investigation.
Understanding how empathy varies across different demographic groups is of paramount importance for several reasons. Firstly, it sheds light on the dynamics of social interactions and the quality of interpersonal relationships.2 Variations in empathic abilities can influence how individuals connect with each other, resolve conflicts, and build strong social bonds. Secondly, in applied settings such as healthcare, education, and leadership, empathy plays a critical role in fostering positive outcomes.9 For instance, in healthcare, a clinician's empathy can significantly impact patient satisfaction and treatment adherence. Similarly, in educational settings, a teacher's empathy can enhance the learning environment and student engagement. Finally, exploring the demographic variations in empathy is crucial for addressing social inequalities and promoting inclusivity.10 Identifying groups who may experience or express empathy differently can inform interventions aimed at fostering greater understanding and bridging social divides. This report will delve into the existing research on how empathy is associated with key demographic factors, including age, gender, ethnicity/culture, socioeconomic status, and education level.
The distinction between cognitive and emotional empathy is fundamental to interpreting the research findings discussed in this report. Studies that primarily investigate the cognitive aspect of empathy might reveal different demographic trends compared to those that focus on the emotional aspect. For example, age-related changes might manifest differently for cognitive empathy than for emotional empathy. Therefore, a nuanced analysis of the literature requires careful consideration of which facet of empathy is being measured in each study.
II. Empathy Across the Lifespan
The development of empathy is a process that unfolds across the human lifespan, with different components of empathy exhibiting distinct developmental trajectories. During childhood and adolescence, cognitive empathy, the ability to understand others' mental states, is a late-developing capacity that generally increases.5 However, abilities related to cognitive empathy may undergo changes during the adolescent years.5 In contrast, emotional empathy, which involves the capacity to share or resonate with others' feelings, has evolutionary roots and appears early in life. Even in infancy, behaviors indicative of empathy, such as comforting others in distress and spontaneous helping, can be observed.6 The "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test (RMET), a widely used measure of cognitive empathy, has shown that performance on this task tends to improve throughout adolescence.21
As individuals transition into adulthood and progress through the aging process, the landscape of empathy undergoes further transformations. Research suggests that cognitive empathy generally tends to decline in older age, with abilities in this domain typically reaching maturity in early adulthood.2 Notably, this age-related decline in cognitive empathy might be less pronounced in individuals with higher levels of education, particularly after the age of 35.24 Studies employing the RMET have also indicated a gradual decline in performance across adulthood, with a more significant decrease observed in males over the age of 75.5
In contrast to the trend observed in cognitive empathy, evidence suggests that emotional empathy is generally well-preserved or may even increase in older adults.2 Meta-analytic studies have indicated that older adults tend to exhibit higher levels of emotional empathy when compared to their younger counterparts.26 Furthermore, older adults may report experiencing higher levels of state emotional empathy, which is a momentary emotional response to empathy-eliciting situations.7
Neuroscientific investigations have begun to explore the neural underpinnings of these age-related changes in empathy. Functional MRI (fMRI) studies have suggested that there is reduced activity in brain regions associated with cognitive empathy, such as the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, in older adults compared to younger adults.2 Similarly, the neural response in areas like the anterior insula and anterior mid-cingulate cortex, which are indicative of emotional empathy, may lessen with age.2 However, some research has indicated that neural mechanisms related to empathy for both physical and social pain may actually increase from adolescence into older adulthood.30 For empathy towards positive emotions, younger and older adults might engage similar brain networks, specifically those within the default mode network.31
Despite the potential decline in cognitive empathy with age, older adults often demonstrate increased prosocial behavior. This may be attributed to their tendency to prioritize emotionally meaningful activities, which can enhance their emotional empathy and motivation to help others.7 Additionally, research suggests that empathy can play a mediating role in the relationship between age and the perception of social support, indicating that empathic abilities may contribute to maintaining social connections and well-being in later life.33
The complex pattern of empathy across the lifespan, with a decline in cognitive empathy alongside the preservation or enhancement of emotional empathy, suggests that older adults may increasingly rely on their emotional understanding in navigating social interactions. The apparent protective effect of education on age-related cognitive decline in empathy further highlights the influence of cognitive reserve on maintaining this crucial social ability.
Table 1: Age-Related Changes in Empathy
III. Gender and Empathy
Research on gender and empathy has consistently revealed that women tend to report higher levels of empathy compared to men.1 This phenomenon, often referred to as the "gender empathy gap," is a well-established finding in the literature.36
When examining the specific dimensions of empathy, some studies suggest that women score higher on measures of cognitive empathy, such as the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET).21 However, it is important to note that the RMET itself has faced criticism regarding potential gender biases in its design, which could influence the interpretation of these findings.42 In terms of emotional empathy, women generally tend to score higher on subscales related to personal distress and empathic concern, which are key aspects of this dimension.3 Interestingly, some research has suggested that men might exhibit better performance on tasks assessing perspective-taking, a component of cognitive empathy, or in the domain of empathetic control.3
While self-report measures consistently indicate a gender difference in empathy, the role of biological and genetic factors in this disparity appears to be complex. Genetic factors are believed to play a small role in individual differences in empathy; however, the observed gender difference is not attributed to genetic variations in genes specifically associated with empathy.1 Non-genetic biological factors, such as prenatal hormone influences, might contribute to the observed differences between men and women.1 Furthermore, research has linked lower digit ratios and higher levels of testosterone to lower empathic accuracy.36 Notably, neuroscientific studies that utilize physiological measures to assess empathy sometimes find no significant gender differences in brain activity related to empathic responses.38
Social and cultural influences are considered significant contributors to the gender empathy gap. Socialization processes and societal expectations related to gender roles likely play a substantial role.1 For instance, men might be less inclined to report empathic experiences due to prevailing social expectations that discourage the expression of emotions often associated with empathy.39 Additionally, an individual's motivation can influence their performance on empathy-related tasks, with women sometimes demonstrating better performance when they believe the task is specifically measuring empathy.36
Understanding the nuances of gender differences in empathy is important across various contexts. In leadership, for example, while empathetic leadership is often desired (and stereotypically associated with feminine traits), men still hold a majority of leadership positions, highlighting the need to challenge traditional gendered expectations in this domain.12 In healthcare, awareness of potential gender differences in both patients' and practitioners' empathy can contribute to more effective and patient-centered care.9 Furthermore, in interpersonal relationships, understanding these differences can foster better communication and connection.6
The consistent finding of higher self-reported empathy in women likely arises from a complex interplay of biological predispositions, social learning, and the potential influence of gender role stereotypes on self-perception and reporting. The fact that gender differences are more prominent in self-report measures, and can be affected by how a task is presented, underscores the significant impact of social and cultural factors. Moreover, the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test, despite its widespread use in assessing cognitive empathy, may have inherent gender biases that could affect the interpretation of observed gender differences.
Table 2: Gender Differences in Empathy Across Measurement Methods
IV. The Influence of Ethnicity and Culture on Empathy
Research indicates that ethnicity and culture exert a significant influence on empathy, both in terms of how it is experienced and how it is expressed. A fundamental aspect of this influence is the tendency for individuals to feel greater empathy towards those who belong to their own ethnic or cultural group. This in-group favoritism is often attributed to a sense of perceived psychological similarity.44
The concept of ethnocultural empathy further elaborates on this phenomenon, emphasizing that an individual's empathy towards others is likely to be modulated by the other person's ethnicity, gender, age, and cultural background.44 Ethnocultural empathy comprises several key components, including intellectual empathy, which is the ability to understand another person's thoughts and feelings from their racial or ethnic perspective, empathic emotions, which involve feeling the emotions of someone from another ethnocultural group from their cultural viewpoint, and communicative empathy, which is the expression of these empathic thoughts and feelings towards individuals from different racial and ethnic groups.15 Studies have shown that women and individuals who identify as non-White tend to report higher levels of ethnocultural empathy.44 Conversely, research has indicated a negative association between racism and ethnocultural empathy.44
Cultural norms and values play a crucial role in shaping how individuals perceive and express empathy.45 The way empathy manifests can differ between collectivistic and individualistic cultures.17 While some research suggests higher levels of empathy in collectivistic cultures, where interdependence and group harmony are emphasized, other studies have indicated the opposite. For example, research comparing East Asian and White British participants has revealed differences in both affective and cognitive empathy in response to observing pain.48 British participants in these studies tended to report more empathic concern but demonstrated lower empathic accuracy compared to their East Asian counterparts.
The concept of inter-minority empathy highlights another facet of cultural influence on empathy. This refers to empathy for the experiences of other minority groups that arises from an individual's own experience of being a minority.51 Research suggests that inter-minority empathy is positively correlated with the number of minority statuses an individual holds and with being a visible and easily recognizable minority.
In applied settings, particularly healthcare, understanding cultural differences and cultivating ethnocultural empathy are essential for healthcare providers. This enables them to provide patient-centered care and effectively address health disparities that may arise from cultural misunderstandings or biases.9
The significant influence of cultural context on both the experience and expression of empathy underscores the need for culturally sensitive approaches in studying this construct. What might be considered an empathetic response in one cultural setting may be interpreted differently in another. Furthermore, the concept of inter-minority empathy suggests that shared experiences of marginalization can foster empathy across different social identities, offering a potential avenue for building understanding and solidarity.
V. Socioeconomic Status and Empathy
The relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and empathy is complex and not consistently straightforward across research findings.13 Some studies suggest that individuals from lower SES backgrounds tend to exhibit higher levels of empathy, particularly in the affective domain and in terms of empathic accuracy.54 This has been potentially attributed to a greater tendency among lower SES individuals to explain social events by considering external environmental factors and a heightened ability to recognize others' emotional states. However, other research has indicated no clear effect or even a negative correlation between objective measures of SES, such as income and education, and performance on empathy tasks.56
The influence of empathy on prosocial behavior also appears to be modulated by SES.55 For individuals with a higher socioeconomic status, empathy can have a positive impact on their willingness to help others, regardless of the recipient's social class. In contrast, for individuals with a lower socioeconomic status, empathy might not significantly affect their inclination to support helping behaviors. Interestingly, empathy's effect on caring tendencies seems to be stronger when the person in need belongs to the same social class as the helper, for both high and low-class individuals, suggesting an in-group bias in how empathy translates into caring actions.55
In the context of healthcare, research has indicated that patients with lower SES may report experiencing lower levels of empathy from their clinicians compared to patients with higher SES.10 This finding suggests a potential empathy gap within the healthcare system that is linked to socioeconomic status.
The multifaceted relationship between socioeconomic status and empathy highlights that the connection is not simple and may depend on the specific aspect of empathy being examined, as well as the situational context. The observation that patients with low SES may perceive less empathy from healthcare providers carries significant implications for healthcare equity, suggesting that socioeconomic disparities might extend to the quality of interpersonal interactions in medical settings.
VI. Education Level and Empathy
Research generally indicates a positive association between higher levels of education and cognitive empathy, particularly in adult populations.21 Individuals who have attained a college education tend to score higher on cognitive empathy assessments, such as the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET).24 Furthermore, education appears to play a protective role against the age-related decline in cognitive empathy, especially for individuals aged 35 and older.24
In educational settings, empathy is recognized as a crucial factor contributing to college students' academic success, the quality of their learning experiences, and the strength of their relationships with instructors.8 Activities such as service-learning have been shown to be effective in fostering empathy among students.8 However, it is worth noting that the COVID-19 pandemic was associated with a decline in cognitive empathy among college students.8
The consistent finding that higher education levels are linked to higher cognitive empathy suggests that formal learning and intellectual development may play a role in enhancing an individual's ability to understand and appreciate the perspectives of others.
VII. Intersectionality of Demographic Factors in Empathy
It is crucial to recognize that demographic factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and education level do not operate in isolation. Instead, these factors intersect and interact in complex ways, creating unique experiences of privilege or disadvantage that can significantly influence empathy.18 An intersectional approach emphasizes that an individual's experiences and challenges are shaped by the combination of their multiple social identities.
For example, the intersection of race, gender, age, and socioeconomic status can affect an individual's experiences of mistreatment and how they attribute instances of discrimination.63 The experience of being a woman in the workplace can vary considerably depending on her ethnicity.59 Individuals with multiple marginalized identities, such as LGBTQ+ individuals from racialized communities with low socioeconomic status, often face compounded challenges that can impact their mental health and well-being.18 Furthermore, older women may experience unique forms of financial precarity due to the intersection of gender and age discrimination.62
While the provided research on intersectionality does not directly focus on empathy, it underscores the importance of considering how empathy might be shaped by the interplay of various demographic identities. For instance, the relationship between age and empathy could differ significantly for men and women from different ethnic backgrounds and socioeconomic statuses. Currently, research specifically examining the intersectionality of demographics and empathy is still in its early stages.58
Adopting an intersectional lens is essential for gaining a more comprehensive understanding of empathy, as it acknowledges that demographic categories are not independent and their interactions can lead to unique patterns of empathy that might be overlooked when examining each factor in isolation. Future research should prioritize employing intersectional methodologies to provide a more nuanced understanding of how multiple identities simultaneously shape empathic experiences.
VIII. Empathy in Applied Settings: The Healthcare Context
In healthcare settings, empathy is widely recognized as a critical component of high-quality patient care. Clinician empathy has been consistently associated with better patient outcomes and overall patient experiences.9
Research suggests that patients' demographic characteristics can influence their perception of clinician empathy. Patients from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may report experiencing lower levels of empathy from their healthcare providers.10 Additionally, compared to White patients, individuals from various racial and ethnic minority groups may report numerically lower empathy from clinicians, although these differences may not always reach statistical significance in broader analyses.10 One study specifically found that patients rated Black male medical students as exhibiting lower empathy compared to other groups.11
The demographics of healthcare practitioners themselves may also play a role in empathy levels. Studies suggest that healthcare settings with a majority of female practitioners might exhibit higher average empathy scores.11 Furthermore, Asian American medical students, in one study, were assessed by simulated patients as showing less empathy than their self-reported levels indicated and also less empathy than their White peers.66
Implicit biases held by healthcare providers, which are unconscious attitudes and stereotypes based on patient demographics, can lead to unequal treatment, disparities in pain management, and a lack of empathy towards patients from minority groups.17 Stressful and high-workload clinical environments can exacerbate these unconscious negative attitudes.70 To address these issues, training in cultural competence and ethnocultural empathy is crucial for healthcare providers. Such training can improve communication, build trust, and ultimately lead to more equitable and patient-centered care for diverse patient populations.15
The healthcare context clearly reveals potential disparities in the experience of empathy based on the demographics of both patients and clinicians. This underscores the pervasive impact of social biases on interpersonal interactions, even in professional settings where empathy is considered a foundational element of care. The discrepancy observed between self-reported empathy and patient-assessed empathy in healthcare professionals, particularly across different demographic groups, highlights that an individual's self-perception of their empathy might not always align with how their empathy is experienced by others.
IX. Meta-Analytic Perspectives on Empathy Demographics
Meta-analyses, which statistically combine the results of multiple independent studies, offer valuable insights into broader trends regarding the demographics of empathy. One meta-analysis focusing on emotional empathy across adulthood found that emotional empathy tends to increase with age, with older adults generally showing higher levels compared to younger adults.26 However, this analysis also indicated that the effect of age on emotional empathy can vary depending on the specific measure used to assess it.
Another meta-analysis examined the psychometric properties of the Basic Empathy Scale (BES), a widely used instrument for measuring both cognitive and affective empathy. This study concluded that the BES is a reliable tool for use in general population groups, although it noted moderate to high heterogeneity in the results across the included studies.4
In the healthcare domain, a meta-analysis of patient-reported clinician empathy revealed that patients with lower socioeconomic status experienced lower levels of empathy from their clinicians. While the analysis showed a numerical decrease in empathy scores for racial and ethnic minority patients compared to White patients, this difference did not reach statistical significance in the overall meta-analysis.13
More recently, a meta-analysis explored the relationship between traits associated with the "Dark Triad" (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy) and empathy. The findings indicated negative associations between all three traits and affective empathy. Additionally, Machiavellianism showed a negative correlation with cognitive empathy.73
Meta-analyses provide a powerful method for synthesizing findings from a large body of research and identifying overarching patterns in the relationship between empathy and demographic factors. However, the heterogeneity observed in some of these analyses underscores the complexity of the field and suggests that methodological variations across different studies can influence the results.
X. The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) and Demographic Differences
The Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET) is a widely used performance-based measure of "theory of mind," often considered an aspect of cognitive empathy. Numerous studies employing the English version of the RMET across a diverse range of countries have reported an on-average female advantage in test performance.21 This female advantage appears to be consistent across different age groups. However, it is important to note that this finding is not universal, with some studies reporting no significant gender differences in RMET scores.21
Regarding age-related differences, performance on the RMET typically shows an increase throughout adolescence, followed by a shallow decline across adulthood. This decline appears to be more pronounced in older males.5
Research has also examined RMET performance in specific populations, such as individuals with autism. Studies have consistently found that individuals with autism tend to score lower on the RMET compared to neurotypical individuals. Interestingly, one study reported an absence of the typical female advantage on the RMET within the autism spectrum.1
Despite its widespread use, the RMET has been subject to methodological scrutiny. Concerns have been raised regarding potential gender biases in the selection of images and the range of emotional expressions depicted, particularly for female faces. These potential biases could affect the interpretation of observed gender differences in cognitive empathy as measured by this test.42
The RMET has provided valuable insights into potential gender and age-related differences in cognitive empathy. However, the methodological limitations associated with the test warrant careful consideration when interpreting findings based on this measure.
XI. Gender Roles and Empathy
Gender roles and societal expectations exert a significant influence on the expression and reporting of empathy. Research suggests that self-reported empathy levels might be affected by individuals' tendencies to align with prevailing gender stereotypes, with men potentially underreporting and women potentially overreporting their empathic abilities.38
Furthermore, gender roles may also be linked to differences in moral cognition. For instance, studies have found that women may exhibit less frequent utilitarian responses in moral dilemma scenarios, suggesting a potential connection between gender roles and moral judgment.38
It is important to recognize that empathy is not solely an inherent trait but can also be learned and cultivated by individuals of any gender. This suggests that observed gender differences in empathy are not exclusively determined by biological factors but are also shaped by socialization processes and cultural norms.12
In the context of leadership, despite a general preference for leaders who exhibit empathy (a trait often stereotypically associated with femininity), men continue to hold a disproportionate number of leadership positions. This highlights the ongoing need to challenge and dismantle traditional gendered stereotypes associated with leadership qualities.12
Gender roles play a substantial part in shaping how empathy is expressed and reported, potentially masking the true extent of any underlying differences in empathic abilities between genders. The understanding that empathy can be learned underscores the potential for interventions and societal shifts to foster empathy across all genders, irrespective of traditional expectations.
XII. Conclusion and Future Directions
The body of research on the demographics of empathy reveals a complex and nuanced landscape. Empathy, a multifaceted ability encompassing both cognitive and emotional dimensions, varies across different stages of the lifespan, between genders, across ethnicities and cultures, and in relation to socioeconomic status and education level. While cognitive empathy tends to mature in early adulthood and may decline in later years, particularly without higher education, emotional empathy appears to be more resilient, potentially even increasing with age. The well-documented gender empathy gap, with women generally reporting higher empathy, is likely influenced by a combination of biological, social, and motivational factors, although the precise contributions of each remain an area of ongoing investigation. Cultural norms and values profoundly shape both the experience and expression of empathy, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive research and understanding. Socioeconomic status presents a complex relationship with empathy, with some evidence suggesting higher empathy in lower SES individuals, yet potential disparities in perceived empathy within healthcare settings. Higher education is generally associated with greater cognitive empathy.
The intersectionality of these demographic factors represents a critical frontier for future research. Understanding how multiple identities interact to shape empathic abilities and experiences will provide a more comprehensive and ecologically valid picture. Current research often examines demographic factors in isolation, but the reality of human experience involves the simultaneous interplay of these identities.
Future research should prioritize longitudinal studies to better understand the developmental trajectories of both cognitive and emotional empathy across the entire lifespan. Employing diverse methodologies beyond self-report measures, including behavioral tasks and neuroimaging techniques, will be crucial for gaining a more objective understanding of empathy and its demographic variations. Further investigation into the neural mechanisms underlying empathy across different demographic groups is also warranted. Addressing potential biases in commonly used empathy measures, such as the RMET, is essential for ensuring the validity of findings related to gender differences in cognitive empathy. Moreover, continued exploration of cultural variations in empathy expression and understanding, as well as the mechanisms underlying observed empathy gaps in applied settings like healthcare, are critical for promoting social understanding, equity, and well-being. The insights gained from continued rigorous research in this area hold significant promise for fostering more empathetic and inclusive societies.
Works cited
Study finds that genes play a role in empathy | University of Cambridge, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/study-finds-that-genes-play-a-role-in-empathy
Impact of Aging on Empathy: Review of Psychological and Neural Mechanisms - Frontiers, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00331/full
Are Women More Empathic Than Men? | Psychology Today, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/how-my-brain-works/202410/are-women-more-empathic-than-men
Basic Empathy Scale: A Systematic Review and Reliability Generalization Meta-Analysis, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8775461/
Cognitive empathy across the lifespan - PMC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9790591/
The Psychology of Emotional and Cognitive Empathy | Lesley University, accessed May 1, 2025, https://lesley.edu/article/the-psychology-of-emotional-and-cognitive-empathy
Aging, Empathy, and Prosociality | The Journals of Gerontology: Series B | Oxford Academic, accessed May 1, 2025, https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/article/70/2/213/572414
Empathy and Academic Achievement Among Black/African American Students at an HBCU - ScholarWorks | Walden University Research, accessed May 1, 2025, https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1961&context=jerap
The demographic information of empathy scale scores (Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test) N = 669 - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-demographic-information-of-empathy-scale-scores-Reading-the-Mind-in-the-Eyes-Test-N_tbl2_267731372
Socioeconomic, racial and ethnic differences in patient experience of clinician empathy: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis | PLOS One, accessed May 1, 2025, https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0247259
How do patient and practitioner characteristics influence empathy in healthcare? Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis | BMJ Open, accessed May 1, 2025, https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/15/2/e096269.full
Why Gender Parity and Empathy Must Coexist in Leadership - Training Industry, accessed May 1, 2025, https://trainingindustry.com/articles/diversity-equity-and-inclusion/why-gender-parity-and-empathy-must-coexist-in-leadership/
Socioeconomic, racial and ethnic differences in patient experience of clinician empathy - medRxiv, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.07.08.20148858v1.full.pdf
Socioeconomic, racial and ethnic differences in patient experience of clinician empathy: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis - PubMed Central, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7928470/
Beyond Cultural Competency: Considering Ethnocultural Empathy | Athletic Training Education Journal - Allen Press, accessed May 1, 2025, https://meridian.allenpress.com/atej/article/17/4/277/488426/Beyond-Cultural-Competency-Considering
Cultural Competence in Health Care: Is it important for people with chronic conditions?, accessed May 1, 2025, https://hpi.georgetown.edu/cultural/
Cross Cultural Empathetic Behavior in Health Care Providers: A Review of 3 Countries, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10807346/
Intersectionality & Mental Health: Embracing Diversity | MHE, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.mentalhealtheurope.org/what-we-do/intersectionality/
Intersectionality And Mental Health | BetterHelp, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/inclusive-mental-health/intersectionality-and-mental-health-using-an-intersectional-lens/
Empathy Across the Adult Lifespan: Longitudinal and Experience-Sampling Findings - PMC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2669929/
Sex and age differences in "theory of mind" across 57 countries using the English version of the "Reading the Mind in the Eyes" Test | Request PDF - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/366713140_Sex_and_age_differences_in_theory_of_mind_across_57_countries_using_the_English_version_of_the_Reading_the_Mind_in_the_Eyes_Test
Sex and age differences in “theory of mind” across 57 countries using the English version of the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test - PubMed Central, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9910622/
Sex and age differences in “theory of mind” across 57 countries using the English version of the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test | PNAS, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2022385119
Review of “Does our cognitive empathy diminish with age? The moderator role of educational level” by Gutierrez-Cobo, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.ipa-online.org/UserFiles/Wang_ReviewofCognitiveEmpathyPaper.pdf
Does our cognitive empathy diminish with age? The moderator role ..., accessed May 1, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34078514/
Emotional empathy across adulthood: A meta-analytic review - PubMed, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37971867/
Impact of Aging on Empathy: Review of Psychological and Neural Mechanisms - PMC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6580149/
Aging is associated with changes in the neural circuits underlying empathy - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258427186_Aging_is_associated_with_changes_in_the_neural_circuits_underlying_empathy
Distinct neural correlates of emotional and cognitive empathy in older adults - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273522474_Distinct_neural_correlates_of_emotional_and_cognitive_empathy_in_older_adults
Neural empathy mechanisms are shared for physical and social pain, and increase from adolescence to older adulthood - Oxford Academic, accessed May 1, 2025, https://academic.oup.com/scan/article/19/1/nsae080/7874771
Age-related differences in negative cognitive empathy but similarities in positive affective empathy - PubMed Central, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8203543/
Empathy Mediates the Effects of Age and Sex on Altruistic Moral Decision Making - Frontiers, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2016.00067/full
The Key Role of Empathy in the Relationship between Age and Social Support - PMC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10487866/
(PDF) The Mediating Role of Empathy in the Relationship between Age and Social Support across the Lifespan - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/372893010_The_Mediating_Role_of_Empathy_in_the_Relationship_between_Age_and_Social_Support_across_the_Lifespan
Empathy as related to gender, age, race and ethnicity, academic background and career interest: A nationwide study of osteopathic medical students in the United States, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7317910/
Gender empathy gap - Wikipedia, accessed May 1, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_empathy_gap
pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8452078/#:~:text=Several%20sociodemographic%20characteristics%20have%20been,8%2C16%2C17%5D.
(PDF) Men, women…who cares? A population-based study on sex differences and gender roles in empathy and moral cognition - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317697321_Men_womenwho_cares_A_population-based_study_on_sex_differences_and_gender_roles_in_empathy_and_moral_cognition
Are There Gender Differences In Empathy ? - Undergraduate ..., accessed May 1, 2025, https://ujpb.org/research/volume-7/are-there-gender-differences-in-empathy/
Females perform better than males on a 'theory of mind' test across 57 countries, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/females-perform-better-than-males-on-a-theory-of-mind-test-across-57-countries
Females score higher than males on the widely used 'Reading the Mind in the Eyes' Test, study shows - News-Medical.Net, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.news-medical.net/news/20221227/Females-score-higher-than-males-on-the-widely-used-Reading-the-Mind-in-the-Eyes-Test-study-shows.aspx
Gender Bias in the Reading the Mind in the Eyes… - The Creativity Post, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.creativitypost.com/article/gender_bias_in_the_reading_the_mind_in_the_eyes_test
Reading the Mind in the Eyes test | Embrace Autism, accessed May 1, 2025, https://embrace-autism.com/reading-the-mind-in-the-eyes-test/
Ethnocultural empathy - Wikipedia, accessed May 1, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnocultural_empathy
The Role of Cultural Context in Empathy Evaluation: A Cross-Cultural Study - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385129492_The_Role_of_Cultural_Context_in_Empathy_Evaluation_A_Cross-Cultural_Study
Empathy in Cross-Cultural Communication: A Crucial Role - Natsuyo Lipschutz, accessed May 1, 2025, https://natsuyolipschutz.us/empathy-in-cross-cultural-communication-a-crucial-role/
Empathy and Cross-Cultural Communication - Join The Collective, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.jointhecollective.com/article/empathy-and-cross-cultural-communication/
How Does Empathy Vary Across Different Cultures? - Morgan Latif, accessed May 1, 2025, https://morganlatif.com/insight/how-does-empathy-vary-across-different-cultures/
Culture Shapes Empathic Responses to Physical and Social Pain ..., accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4976796/
COUNTRY-LEVEL DIFFERENCES IN EMPATHY 1 - IU Indianapolis ScholarWorks, accessed May 1, 2025, https://scholarworks.indianapolis.iu.edu/bitstream/1805/14139/1/Chopik_2016_differences.pdf
Full article: The Measurement of Inter-Minority Empathy - Taylor & Francis Online, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00918369.2024.2414310
(PDF) Cross-Cultural Empathy and Training the Contemporary Psychotherapist - ResearchGate, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226244619_Cross-Cultural_Empathy_and_Training_the_Contemporary_Psychotherapist
Cultural Humility and Empathy — Steps on the Journey of Cultural Competence, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.socialworktoday.com/news/pp_031519.shtml
scholars.fhsu.edu, accessed May 1, 2025, https://scholars.fhsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4176&context=theses#:~:text=behaviors%20and%20willingness%20to%20help,be%20of%20a%20lower%20SES.
You May Have My Help but Not Necessarily My Care: The Effect of ..., accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8062701/
Effect of Socioeconomic Status on Altruistic Behavior in Chinese Middle School Students: Mediating Role of Empathy - MDPI, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/20/4/3326
Socioeconomic, racial and ethnic differences in patient experience of clinician empathy: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis | medRxiv, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2020.07.08.20148858v1
Intersectionality in nursing research: A scoping review - PMC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10655863/
Intersectionality Theory and Practice - Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Business and Management, accessed May 1, 2025, https://deltaalphapsi.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/Intersectionality-Theory-and-Practice.pdf
The Role of Intersectionality in Understanding Bias and Equity in Psychological Assessments - Psicosmart, accessed May 1, 2025, https://psico-smart.com/en/blogs/blog-the-role-of-intersectionality-in-understanding-bias-and-equity-in-psychological-assessments-169673
Research Methods in the Study of Intersectionality in Psychology: Examples Informed by a Decade of Collaborative Work With Majority World Women's Grassroots Activism - Frontiers, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.494309/full
Full article: Intersectionality of gender and age ('gender*age'): a critical realist approach to explaining older women's increased homelessness - Taylor & Francis Online, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14767430.2024.2389675
The Intersections of Race, Gender, Age, and Socioeconomic Status: Implications for Reporting Discrimination and Attributions to Discrimination - PMC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6741774/
Heightened Cognitive Empathy through Ethnic Identity and Intercultural Competence for Individuals with Historically Marginalized - ERIC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1345021.pdf
pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7928470/#:~:text=Compared%20to%20white%20patients%2C%20empathy,these%20differences%20reached%20statistical%20significance.
Medical Students' Self-Reported Empathy and Simulated Patients' Assessments of Student Empathy: An Analysis by Gender and Ethnic - University of Virginia School of Medicine, accessed May 1, 2025, https://med.virginia.edu/faculty-affairs/wp-content/uploads/sites/458/2016/04/2011-12-13.pdf
Eliminating Explicit and Implicit Biases in Health Care: Evidence and Research Needs - PMC, accessed May 1, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9172268/
Implicit bias: More than a buzzword - American Nurse, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.myamericannurse.com/implicit-bias-more-than-a-buzzword/
How Does Implicit Bias Affect Healthcare Providers? - Quality Interactions, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.qualityinteractions.com/blog/how-does-implicit-bias-affect-healthcare-providers
How to Identify, Understand, and Unlearn Implicit Bias in Patient Care | AAFP, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.aafp.org/pubs/fpm/issues/2019/0700/p29.html
Mitigating Implicit Bias Through Understanding - AchieveCE, accessed May 1, 2025, https://achievece.com/blog/mitigating-implicit-bias-through-understanding
Basic Empathy Scale: A Systematic Review and Reliability Generalization Meta-Analysis, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/10/1/29
Cold hearts and dark minds: a systematic review and meta-analysis of empathy across dark triad personalities - Frontiers, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychiatry/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1546917/full
The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” Test: Complete Absence of Typical Sex Difference in ~400 Men and Women with Autism | PLOS One, accessed May 1, 2025, https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0136521
Baron-Cohen et al. (eyes test) - Simply Psychology, accessed May 1, 2025, https://www.simplypsychology.org/baron-cohen-et-al-eyes-test.html
No comments:
Post a Comment